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(1915 – 1996) Liberal Democratic member of Congress (1946–51), governor (1955–9) and first elected Democratic senator from Maine (1959–80). Muskie ran unsuccessfully for vicepresident with Hubert Humphrey on the 1968 Democratic ticket. He lost his bid for the presidential nomination in 1972, in part because of perceptions that he cried when newspapers attacked his family. Lincolnesque in profile, Muskie was concerned by both social and environmental issues. He left the Senate in 1980 to serve briefly as Jimmy Carter’s Secretary of State.
Industry:Culture
(1915 – 1998) Frank Sinatra came to prominence in the 1940s as a crooner of mood music and went on to become perhaps the most famous and beloved singer in the history of American popular music, despite his alleged connections with the mob. Through a series of incarnations, from teen idol to movie star to living legend status as “the Chairman of the Board,” the one constant in Sinatra’s career was his incomparable vocal talent, which spanned through five decades of almost uninterrupted popularity Some of his most famous songs, though penned by others— “My Way” ‘I’ve Got You Under My Skin,” “It Was A Very Good Year”—have become forever linked with a man who seemed more to inhabit songs than merely sing them.
Industry:Culture
(born 1916) (Kirk) b. 1944 (Michael) Father and son stars. Kirk (born Issur Danielovitch) broke into movies through physical egocentric male roles, epitomized in his Oscar nominations as a boxer in The Champions (1949) and as Vincent van Gogh in Lust for Life (1956). Awarded a Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1981, he continued his acting career in the 1990s, while engaging in public service and authoring novels and the memoir The Ragman’s Son (1988). Michael starred as a television detective in Streets of San Francisco (ABC, 1972–7). On screen, he has come to personify the deep ambiguities and frustrations of the white middle-class male, whether entrepreneur (Wall Street, 1987, Oscar for Best Actor; Disclosure, 1994), husband (Fatal Attraction, 1987; War of the Roses, 1989), worker (Falling Down, 1993) or president (The American President, 1995)
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(born 1916) Minnesota member of Congress who launched a quixotic antiwar challenge to President Lyndon Johnson in the 1968 Democratic primaries that galvanized youthful anti-Vietnam movements. While Johnson eventually chose not to seek the nomination, McCarthy was defeated by Hubert Humphrey’s nomination by a deeply divided party lacerated by the assassination of Robert Kennedy as well as Chicago convention protests.
McCarthy subsequently became better known as a commentator and poet, although his campaign buttons and bumper stickers remained liberal keepsakes for decades.
Industry:Culture
(born 1917) Architect born in Canton, China, becoming a US citizen in 1954. His global works are characterized by both rational modern style and serene elegance in the interplay of planes of glass and stone/ concrete. Among his best-known works are Boston’s John Hancock Tower (1972), the East Wing of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC and the Bank of China in Hong Kong which reunites his modernist vision with Chinese symbolism. He won the Pritzker Prize in 1983.
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(born 1917) Biologist whose initial concerns with cellular activity led him to become a public activist in postwar environmental issues, which he views as problems caused by human beings to be overcome by thoughtful intervention and changes. Commoner’s work on the effects of radiation made him an outspoken opponent of nuclear weapons and testing.
Over time, his concerns have encompassed production and consumption—pesticides, automobiles, energy—as they affect a global ecological balance. Commoner founded the Center for the Biology of Natural Systems and the Citizens’ Party which ran him for president. His significant works include The Closing Circle (1971) and Making Peace with the Planet (1980).
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(born 1917) Poet and novelist who became the first African American woman to win the Pulitzer Prize (1950). Her rich poetic career has explored the African American vernacular, where race shapes experience (We Real Cool, 1966). Her sometimes underrated novel, Maud Martha (1953), deals with the impact of prejudice within African American interactions, as well as conditions of the larger society. Other poems deal with racial issues of her home in Chicago, IL, including “Jump Bad” (1951).
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(1917 – 1963) John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the first “celebrity president” (1961–3). After an undistinguished career in the House of Representatives and the Senate, Kennedy campaigned for president as a generational critic of the Eisenhower years, which he linked with economic recession, educational mediocrity a missile gap and international humiliations (for example the U-2 spy plane, Castro in Cuba, “Yankee Go Home” riots).
He anticipated being a foreign-policy leader, with Keynesian techniques sufficing to revive and maintain economic growth.
Kennedy brought more than a touch of glamour to the White House; he was America’s first president born in the twentieth century movie-star handsome, married to the exquisite Jacqueline, and with a Harvard brain trust of “the best and the brightest.” The Thousand Days of what would be called Gamelot seemed to integrate the worlds of Washington, Hollywood, Broadway and Cambridge: Frank Sinatra, Robert Frost and the Bundys.
Kennedy’s foreign policy was driven by a critique of Eisenhower’s strategy of “massive retaliation,” a budget-tight reliance on nuclear deterrence, air power and CIA machinations. Kennedy offered “flexible response,” a more ambitious call for the ability to contain the Soviets along the East-West axis, but also to rise to the challenge of national wars of liberation with “counter-insurgency” As such, Kennedy inspired liberal idealists to take seriously the emergence of the Third World through both the Green Berets and the Peace Corps.
Domestically Kennedy discovered that the civil rights revolution—the sit-ins and the freedom rides of 1960 and 1961—forced his administration to respond to the call for racial justice. Partly in response to the ways in which segregation harmed US interests among people of color in the Third World, partly reacting to the pressures generated by events in the South, Kennedy reluctantly moved by 1963 to embrace legislative proposals to eliminate segregation.
On other domestic issues, the Kennedy administration had difficulties in achieving legislative victories in seeking modestly to expand welfare state programs; he is credited with stimulating the economy with a tax cut and upholding the public interest in forcing US Steel to rescind price increases. For the most part, he was a corporate liberal, committed to technocratic solutions within a pro-business, welfare state format.
Kennedy faced his most crucial tests abroad, initially during the Berlin Crisis, which led to the construction of the Berlin Wall and following the abortive Bay of Pigs invasion of Castro’s Cuba. Kennedy’s ad hoc style of leadership, which paid insufficient attention to issues of Castro’s strengths, matters of terrain and the role of air support, contributed to the debacle.
Following this defeat, Kennedy continued to seek the subversion of the Castro Revolution through the CIA’s Operation Mongoose. When intelligence discovered Soviet missile silos being constructed in Cuba, Kennedy responded with a dramatic, televised challenge of a naval blockade to Khrushchev, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any previous moment—or any since. Khrushchev adhered to the blockade, allowing time for compromises to be made—Soviet missiles removed, a US pledge not to invade Cuba and a secret agreement by the US to remove its Jupiter missiles from Turkey.
Kennedy increased US military personnel in South Vietnam from 600 to over 17,000 in response to the military successes of the National Liberation Front. Domestic opposition finally deposed Ngo Dinh Diem in a military coup and assassination in November 1963. Historians grapple with the “what if” regarding Kennedy and Vietnam.
The weight of evidence suggests that Kennedy was likely to increase the Americanization of the war in the face of an impending communist victory At the same time, there were signs of some moderation of Kennedy’s Cold War militancy (for example the Test-ban Treaty and the Washington—Moscow Hot-line).
The legacy of this first Roman Catholic president remains as controversial as the Warren Commission Report’s conclusions about his assassination on November 22, 1963. He inspired many Americans, particularly among youth, to ask “what they could do for their country” In that sense, Kennedy’s New Frontier—astronauts, Green Berets, Peace Corps and VISTA volunteers—served as a contradictory catalyst to the social challenges associated with the 1960s.
Industry:Culture
(1917 – 1967) Born in Georgia, and later a close friend of Tennessee Williams, McCullers is considered an heir to the Southern Gothic tradition of William Faulkner. An essayist and poet, she is primarily known for her allegorical fiction, which explores the feminine aspects of spiritual isolation in the South of the mid-twentieth century She published The Heart is a Lonely Hunter (1940) at age twenty-three, following that with several wellreceived novels and a successful stage adaptation of her novel The Member of the Wedding (1946). McCullers battled a series of strokes and serious illnesses as well as personal tragedies throughout her adult life.
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(1917 – 1977) Born a sharecropper in Mississippi, Fannie Lou Hamer became involved in the Civil Rights movement when she volunteered to attempt registering to vote in 1962 as part of the Black Panther party registration drive organized by SNCC. Despite losing her job and being brutally beaten, she continued in the movement, helping to organize the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, which transformed the 1964 Democratic Party convention in Atlantic City. Best known for her slogans, such as “I am sick and tired of being sick and tired,” Hamer later became involved in the National Council of Negro Women and the National Women’s Political Caucus during the 1970s.
Industry:Culture
